Porters 5 forces for Flipkart

Threat of New Entrants : Industry seems to have very high potential but is at its nascent stage. Lots of scope of growth in the futureMany small players might enter to explore the marketHigh capital investment is required as it is still in the nascent stage. Would not be much of a deterrent as venture capitalists are interested in investing, as they see a future in it.Flipkart is already an established its brand name and network across the nation. Hence, it may not be affected by the entry of small players in its market domainFlipkart is slowly moving up. Although, other players are learning from Flipkart’s mistakes and trying to do better. Since the industry is emerging profits cannot be achieved. Determinants of Supplier Power :For Suppliers (product manufacturers), e-commerce is another platform to sell their products, without any differentiation Hence, e-commerce companies have little amount of bargaining power, including Filpkart.There is an exception in case of popular p roducts, as company has lot of alternatives. Their switching cost is low, if there is no contact.Not all suppliers may have the ability of willingness to forward integrate, as it is highly risky market.Price discrimination is very much possible.As Flipkart is an inventory- based business model, they buy in bulk from their suppliers.Treating suppliers as partners would be very beneficial for Flipkart and it’s suppliers.Rivalry amongst existing firms : Flipkart is having a hard time as it is competing with it’s competitors in e-commerce as well as retail stores.Flipkart has less competitors of the same size, but many in smaller size.Flipkart has lot of competitors now , but not as huge as them, small in size but large in number.Incentive to fight is low, as the market is big enough for everyone to grow but there is no profit margin.Exit costs are very high, as Flipkart has an Inventory – based business model.

Application Letter Essay

I am writing to apply for the position of fireman in the Bureau of Fire and Protection. As requested, I am enclosing a completed job application, my certification, my resume and three references. The chance presented in this listing is very interesting, and I believe that my strong practical experience and education will make me a very competitive candidate for this position. The key strengths that I possess for success in this position include: I am magnificently physically fit and capable in order to sustain the job’s high level of emotionally, mentally and physically demanding activity. I am always ready to jump into action despite the down periods in my job. In addition to attempting to put out fires that might need to help treat victims and perform other vital life-saving or public functions, I provide exceptional contributions to safety of those involved in a fire and offering medical aid to the injured. With a BS degree in Computer Technology and a Civil Service Exam passer last  October 2013, I have a full understanding of the full life cycle of being a fireman. I also have experience in learning and excelling at new technologies as needed. Please see my resume for additional information on my experience.

Consitutional issue in Brandy V HREOC Essay

The case Brandy V Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission challenges the constitutional validity of the scheme for the enforcement of Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC) determination under the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cth). The High Court of Australia had decided that since HREOC was not constituted as a court according to Chapter III of the Constitution, and therefore was not able to exercise judicial power of commonwealth and enforce any subsequent decisions. The Constitution is divided into separate chapters dealing separately with the parliament, executive and the Judicature. The â€Å"pure† doctrine of separation of powers prescribes that the functions of the three arms of government be clearly and institutionally separated . It is important to note that Australia does not have a pure separation of power because we inherited the British Westminster tradition. For example, Chapter I legislative parliament and Chapter II executive are seemingly two independent arms of Constitution, but in practice, this distinction between the executive and legislature is blurred, such that the Commonwealth Ministers are simultaneously members of the executive and the legislature, as it is required by s 64 of the Commonwealth Constitution. However, there is a rigid separation of power in Judicature as described by Chapter III of the Constitution, this characteristic is evident in Brandy V HREOC. The decision made by High Court invalidated the enfo rcement mechanism for decisions of HREOC on the grounds that it infringed the doctrine of separation of powers. This is also evident in the Boilermaker’s case3 whereby the High Court argued the relevant legislation was impermissible under the separation of judicial power principle. The High Court determines the Constitutional issue as the judges seeks to define â€Å"judicial power†. Though the nature and scope of federal judicial power was not exhaustively defined, but High Court concluded only those courts under Chapter III of the Constitution can exercise federal judicial power, however HREOC is not a Chapter III court, so it could not exercise judicial power of Commonwealth. More specifically, High Court held that ss 25ZAA, 25ZAB and 25ZAC of the Racial Discriminate Act 1975 (CTH) governing the registration and enforcement of HREOC determinations were invalid  because those provisions had the effect of making HREOC determination binding and conclusive â€Å"as if it was an order made by the Federal Court†4. A judicial order made by the federal Court takes effect as an exercise of Commonwealth Judicial power, but a determination by the HREOC is neither made nor registered in the exercise of judicial power. On this basis, the High Court held t he relevant provisions of the amended Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (CTH) invalid, as it contravenes Chapter III of the Constitution. The High Court’s decision did not address the subject matter of the case, the human rights issue was not even mentioned throughout the reasoning of the judgements. Personally, I believe the decision is technically fair as it is based on the separation of power, but its lack of consideration in human rights issue resulted the victim suffering the consequence of racial abuse without any legal action being acted upon because it could not be enforced by HREOC. So the question remains, can the separation of power really act as safeguard to individual rights or is it merely legal fiction? Apart from resolving the Constitutional issue and finalized the dispute. The decision made by High Court also invalidated the amendments of Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cth), which means from the day High Court passed on the final decision, HREOC, and other similar commissions including the Industrial Relations Commission and the Australian Broadcasting Authority could not make any determination and enforce any judicial decisions by registering their determination in the Federal Court5. Ironically, the contemporary notion ‘access to justice’ seems to be ignored as the doctrine of separation of power is highlighted. The amendments was made to create efficiency and accessibility of the administration of justice in human rights, so that the public can claim their human rights without going to the court, which is usually rather costly, overly formal, often intimidating6. As the invalidation of amendments takes place, previous costly and problematic enforcement procedures of the Commission returns, the restatement of the importance of the constitutional doctrine of separation of powers and uncertainty in the protection of human rights also are evident7. It is almost rhetorical what role does HREOC provide to the public in terms of claiming their human rights since the invalidation of  amendments? This question illustrates the tension created between the courts that are vested with judicial power and commissions as a result of High Court’s decision. The inconsistency between Commonwealth legislation and the commission which is appointed under Commonwealth legislation, in which resulted invalidation of the amendments shows the dominance in which the High Court has over the other branches of the government. As stated explicitly in s 109 of the Constitution: â€Å"when a law of a state is inconsistent with a law of the Commonwealth, the latter shall prevail, and the former shall, to the extent of the inconsistency, be invalid†8. The concept of parliamentary supremacy and sovereignty is significant in the decision of High Court. It is mentioned briefly above that Australia inherited the Westminster tradition from United Kingdom, as under British Constitutional law, the Parliament has absolute sovereignty and therefore has the power to make or unmake any law. Though this idea of absolute power is less obvious in Australia as we have doctrine of separation of power, but the Brandy case surely highlighted the fact that separation of power in Australian Constitution is not clear and the parliamentary supremacy has the absolute power over other branches of government. Therefore, the High Court relied upon arguments of separation of judicial power in arriving at conclusion, rather than articulating principles relating to those individual rights as justifying those decisions. The decision made by the High Court concerns with constitutional validity rather than the issue of racial discrimination, thus it is fair to say the decision is legally justified but it did not morally justified. This can be explained by the rigid characteristics of western law as discussed by Patrick Parkinson, namely autonomy of law, which is conceptually distinct from custom, morality, religion or politics . This concept is reflected in the Brandy case that High Court adopted legal formalism (an interpretation of legal texts focussing closely on the words, a rule based approach with little or no regard to social, political consideration ) and procedural approach rather than legal instrumentalism (a view that creativity in the  interpretation of legal texts is justified in order to assure that the law serves good public policy and social interests ) and substantive approach. The High Court seeks to achieve justice by consistently applying rules and procedures that shape a fair, consistent and predictable legal system and constrains government arbitrariness. It does not concern whether the end result will be substantive, as such it satisfies ethical, emotional or political factors. This notion of justice is more concerned with process and procedure than the result. As Selznick says, â€Å"legality has to do mainly with how policies and rules are made and applied rather than with their contents â€Å". As a result, High Court held that the enforcement of determinations administered by HREOC was invalid based on the technical ground of separation of judicial power, but ignoring the moral issues concerned in the case as they do not promote fairness and consistency. However, the High Court is now shifting to a system where it seeks to balance out the strict legal framework and social interests. In the context of human rights, this shift is reflected in Australian Capital Television V commonwealth13 and Nationwide News Pty Ltd V Wills14, where the High Court implied issues of human rights in contrast with Brandy V HREOC. In conclusion, in the case of Brandy V HREOC, from a constitutional law perspective, the decision made by the High Court consolidated the separation of power and the exercise of judicial power. However, it is obvious that the rigid characteristics of traditional western law have contributed towards the inefficiencies to the guarantees of human rights issue. Bibliography: Dicey, A. V. Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution. Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1982 Dr Imtiaz Omar, Individual Rights and Judicial Power: the underlying equation (1995) Australasian Law Teachers Associations Catriona Cook et al, Laying Down the law (6th edition, 2002) LLB100 Supplementary Reading, University of Wollongong Imtiaz Omar, â€Å"Darkness On the Edge of Town: The High Court And Human Rights in the Brandy case† (1995) 2 Australia Journal of Human Rights Patrick Gunnings, â€Å"Chapter III courts: Evolution of Australia’s Federal Judiciary† (1995) 6 Public Law Review Alison Gooly, ‘modern framework after Brandy’, (University of Wollongong, 1997) http://www.hreoc.gov.au/racial_discrimination/guide_law/landmark.html

Wine Market (ALDI Group) Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Wine Market (ALDI Group) - Case Study Example In 2008, ALDI's global revenues reached an estimated $65,700.0 million in tendered sales. Distribution of revenues across markets reveals growth in some regions of the world, and retraction in others. Adequate analysis of sites for aggressive advancement of wine varietals within ALDI stores across the board requires data on the overall picture of the various market regions and segmentation analysis of both the wine industry and its customers, for future integration of operations and knowledge sharing with industry partners toward realization of the Group's planned expansion in this product area. One of the strengths of ALDI's German based operations has been the Group's flexible approach to strategic opportunities during moments of economic downturn. A company known for its vision of offering the 'cheapest' high caliber products to its markets, ALDI has brought its 'home,' national and international brand grocery product lines to customers at the lowest possible prices while retaining the select-assortment concept indicative of specialty stores. ALDI's philosophy of grocery retail is based on a 'less-is-more' approach; from supplier selection to store location development and operations, each step in the distribution to market chain is managed to facilitate savings substantial enough to impact the everyday lives of consumers. The Group is reliant upon a tri-partite model of conducting retail business, which includes concentration on: 1. Purchasing power which translates to customer savings, by a large grocery retailer with focused attention on a limited number of 1,400 grocery and household items, of which are mostly ALDI 'select brands'; 2. Streamlined operations that enable the corporation to reduce costs; 3. Adherence to stringent quality standards dedicated to matching or exceeding the leading national brand in taste, appearance, and/or performance. In the context of the most recent global financial crisis, ALDI is looking for ways in which to expand its market share in the retail wine sector. Strategic planning toward this vision must acknowledge points of saturation in the wine market, as well as the total competitive picture in the retail grocery industry. For instance, ALDI's market share in its home country, Germany, has actually seen a reduction recently due to a high level of competition from other compatriot corporations. In efforts to retain the Group's 19% share of the German national market, the stores have begun to offer shoppers more in the way of international brands, and better incentives through semi-weekly promotions in order to capture a larger segment of the middle-class consumer population. Despite the challenge faced at home, ALDI's operations in over 15 other countries continue to be successful, and while hit and miss in 'hot' markets in Eastern Europe sustained by youth demographics, ALDI has recently opened stores in Hungary and Poland. The Commonwealth countries of South Pacific offer a similar demographic operations in Australia now

Heroes in Sports Articles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Heroes in Sports Articles - Essay Example Secondly, the DiMaggio article was written from the second person point of view, while the Williams article was a narrative. Finally, Joe DiMaggio was shown as a real man that was a reluctant hero, while Ted Williams was shown as a baseball star from a far. These similarities and differences will be compared and contrasted. â€Å"The Silent Season of a Hero† article was about Joe DiMaggio and â€Å"Hub Fans Bid Kid Adieu† covered Ted Williams. Their hitting records were discussed, but so was part of their life’s background. An example would be DiMaggio’s marriage to Marilyn Monroe. Williams stint as a military pilot. Both men’s careers in baseball were highlighted. Another similarity in the writing styles in the articles is the telling of a story while relating a message about their hero. These stories are not straight forward biographies. They relate stories, antidotes, and personal impressions of both of these men. â€Å"The Silent Season of a He ro† tells the story of DiMaggio from his position after his career. On the other hand, â€Å"Hub Fans Bid Kid Adieu† tells a story of a day at the ballpark with flashes of the past intermixed. Both stories use the flashback technique to get the stories across. Whether talking about DiMaggio’s meeting of second wife, Marilyn Monroe, or the author’s impressions of Ted Williams when he was a kid, both stories used flashback. The final similarity is both authors believed DiMaggio and Williams were heroes. DiMaggio was described as a reluctant hero, especially in his latter years. This type of hero is based on a man that was a baseball great, that had overcomes a hard childhood, and troubled personal life. Williams was described more through hero worship. The article mentioned his baseball career from a far. Both described DiMaggio and Williams as heroes. There were also differences between the articles. â€Å"The Silent Season of a Hero† and did not use imagery and figurative language, but â€Å"Hub Fans Bid Kid Adieu† used an excessive amount. In â€Å"The Silent Season of a Hero† the opening is straight forward: IT WAS NOT quite spring, the silent season before the search for salmon, and the old fishermen of San Francisco were either painting their boats or repairing their nets along the pier or sitting in the sun talking quietly among themselves, watching the tourists come and go, and smiling, now, as a pretty girl paused to take their picture. (Updike) While descriptive, this paragraph does not use imagery or figurative language. It is just descriptive. In â€Å"Hub Fans Bid Kid Adieu† figurative language is used to describe the eyes of some fans: Two girls, one of them with pert buckteeth and eyes as black as vest buttons, the other with white skin and flesh-colored hair, like an underdeveloped photograph of a redhead, came and sat on my right. On my other side was one of those frowning, chestless young-o ld men who can frequently be seen, often wearing sailor hats, attending ball games alone. (Talese) Also imagery is used describing the ballpark. â€Å"Everything is painted green and seems in curiously sharp focus, like the inside of an old-fashioned peeping-type Easter egg† (Talese). When reading this sentence one can see an Easter egg basket and egg peeping out. These examples are just a few throughout both articles, but both were consistent throughout each respective article. Another difference in the writing styles of the articles is the DiMaggio article was written from the second person point of view, while

Neurological Disorders Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Neurological Disorders - Essay Example Acetycholine esterase (AChE) "plays an important role in the regulation of functions of central and peripheral nervous systems. AChE hydrolyses the cationic neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh)" (Da Ros, 2006). Curare poison, from the bark of a tree in South America, binds to the ACh receptors but doesn't activate them. To understand how this works is to think of it described "as a lock and a key ("lock and key model"). The neurotransmitter (the key) fits the receptor site (the lock). Some drugs act just like the key and attach to the receptor site, conveying a signal just like the neurotransmitter (e.g., nicotine). Other chemicals attach themselves to receptor sites but do not convey a message (e.g., the curare poison). This prevents the neurotransmitter itself from conveying the signal and is like a key that fits a lock but does not actually turn the lock, blocking the real key instead." (Palmer, 2003) This is further explained by the following diagram provided by J.K. Palmer at Eastern Kentucky University: It has been found that organopesticides (OP) bind to acetylcholinesterase and inhibit its normal activity. This will affect muscle tissue by "targeting and depressing acetylcholinesterase activity in a dose-dependent manner, leading to an excessive acetylcholine output, nerve paralysis and finally death.

Discussion board 3 - Research Design Class Essay

Discussion board 3 - Research Design Class - Essay Example According to Chathoth and Olsen (2003), creation of value from coalition has led to customer loyalty because loyal customers base their decisions on value-creation that results from strategic alliance. Coalition allows customers to operate in a business circle made up of their preferred service providers. Customers who were initially loyal are further motivated because they are able to earn points and benefits from the business coalition. This is because some loyalty programs give visa cards in which customers are able to get rewards for their purchases within the alliance. Loyal customers make more purchases as compared to those who are non-loyal and have low tendencies of shifting to a competitor brand. Therefore, it is advisable for business owners in the hotel industry to apply strategic alliance as a way of maintaining their customer loyalty. Creation of value is the main driving factor behind the success of businesses coalitions thus hotel owners should get to know business par tners who are able to appeal and satisfy their customers. When seeking to determine how strategic alliances impact customer loyalty, a specific hotel can be used for case study. Based on the results of a case study, it may always be assumed that under almost similar conditions, the results would apply to other hotels.

Just by Faith Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Just by Faith - Term Paper Example It is clear that many religions find commonality in that they believe that it is faith that drives them to believe and stand fast in their belief. Most religions such as Islam, Judaism and Christianity believe in a sense of morality and justice; but the idea of a human being divine and one with God is considered to be pagan and contrary to the foundation of many religions. No one can reach God’s status, not by works, nor by faith. Humans are at a certain standing and God determines and dictates their outcome. Even in the Christian sect, there are people who oppose the notion that Jesus was both human and God. Does a leader who possesses such religious knowledge need to be sanctioned in order to be of any value to the human race? Is following Jesus and rejecting his divinity contradictory in nature? â€Å"Love Wins,† a quote often used by a pastor from Grand Rapids Michigan, named Rob Bell says it all. In his teaching, and his preaching, he teaches the congregation that it does not really matter what the details say, what matters in the end is Love. The Bible says that God loved the world so much that he gave his one and only son that whoever believed in him, would not die, but would have eternal life. Do they believe that God gave his son to the world, or do they believe that God loved the world so much? There are many faces to this one verse that is loaded with meaning. Pastors try to decipher its essence but find it difficult to â€Å"speak for God.† John piper says â€Å"If the Bible is coherent, then understanding the Bible means grasping how things fit together. Becoming a Biblical theologian means seeing more and more pieces fit together into a glorious mosaic of the divine will. And doing exegesis means querying the text about how its many propositions cohere in the author's mind.† The Bible is up for interpretation and God speaks into words to make understanding easier. In the Christian realm, Jesus is Lord. (Maier) Jesus is God but in the flesh. As sinners, it is believed that our sin was paid for by Jesus dying on the cross. Could there have been any other way? God himself says that He is Lord and there is no one higher than He. But why so much controversy on this particular issue? All three religions; Christianity, Judaism and Islam believe in Jesus. They just believe that Jesus had a different purpose. The details of each religion varies greatly, neither are good or bad, they just are. (Jesus: The Islamic and Christian views of comparison: compared)Christians believe that Jesus is God in the flesh. Jews consider Jesus to be a prophet and in the long run, â€Å"missed the boat† when he came to earth to save His very own people. However, what is Jesus and is it important that he be ordained from above to make a difference in this world? It is clear that this is not the case. Jesus walked and breathed scripture. He knew scripture by heart but he had to learn it. We have little account of Jesus w hen he was a young child and a teenager. The Bible is vague in that it speaks of his miracles but fails to explain the surrounding text. The Bible itself is written in a way that it allows people, common and theologians to interpret it. Pastors spend years and years attempting to make sense of written scripture that was present long before they were even born. Biblical scholars and Scientists use their academic credentials to bring what they feel to be the truth, alive in their minds. Geologists study rocks dating back to the time that Jesus supposedly walked the earth. In addition, the common people attempt to depend on what little they have. What they do know is that their Faith has carried them thus far. If we compare a divine being, anointed or not, to a school teacher, you can find much similarity. It is assumed that this person would

Marketing Essentials Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Marketing Essentials - Assignment Example Subsequent to that, the Company developed and published ‘Modern Methods of Antiseptic Wound Treatment’ in the year of 1888. In the same year, the Company successfully innovated and launched the first commercial first aid kits. The Maternity kits were launched for the purpose of making childbirth safer in the year of 1894. Johnson & Johnson has strong credos that are inbuilt into the company’s business ideology. The first responsibility is to the nurses, patients, nurses, to fathers and mothers who use the company services and products. In addition to that, the Company maintains following standards: High Quality, Prompt service delivery, Equal opportunity for the suppliers, Individual attention to employees, Adequate and fair compensation and working conditions, Equal employment opportunities. Johnson & Johnson has no established mission or vision statement. However, the credos and values are considered to be serving the role of mission and vision statement for the company. Chapter 2 Analysis of company situation Source: (Johnson & Johnson annual report 2011). Johnson & Johnson performed well in the year of 2011. It produced adjusted earnings for the 28th consecutive year (Annual Report, 2011). In the year, the company’s aggregate sales were $ 65.0 billion adding an increase of 5.6 percent into the sales. Operationally, sales grew by 2.8 percent, representing the growing demand and strength of new products particularly in the pharmaceuticals business segment, science-based continuous innovations in the consumer business, steady and constant growth in the MD&D franchise and strong growth was recorded in the emerging markets (Annual Report, 2011). Up to 70 percent of sales were generated by products having No.1 or No.2 global market share positions. And approximately 25 percent of sales were generated through the products introduced in the past five years (Annual Report, 2011). Also, the company invested $ 7.5 billion in advanced robust pipelines and Research & Development across three of the main business segments. Due to this substantial investments in the R&D projects, the company generated considerable free cash flow of nearly & 11.4 billion. The consequent effect appeared in the shape of AAA credit ratings and consecutively increasing the dividend to shareholders for the last 49 years. Source: (Johnson & Johnson Annual Report, 2011). Chapter 3 Market situation The United States of America remains the biggest market for the personal care and health care products. The market situation in the United States indicates that there are more than 800 companies serving in the personal care and health industry and their collective annual revenues has been estimated around $ 38 billion (Hoovers, 2012). The major companies include Johnson & Johnson, Estee Lauder and Procter & Gamble. The research indicates that this industry is heavily concentrated and 85 percent of industry revenue is contributed by the 50 largest firms i n the personal care products (Hoovers, 2012). Top 5 Companies Source: Hoovers D&B Company The above graph highlights 5 leading companies in the personal and health care p

International Business Law Assessment Assignment

International Business Law Assessment - Assignment Example In addition, the new generation business law include, market contestability which mainly focuses on anti competitive behavior and market contestability which deals with abuse of dominant position (Emerson 2009, p.78-80). Note however that, the arbitration system and enforcement capacities also have a role to play as far as business law is concerned. Under this sphere are the commercial courts and the specialized economic courts. They come in when transactions between parties are not honored and to a larger extent interpret business law to the affected parties. Business just like any other discipline which involves interaction between two or more parties cannot be wholly exonerated from instances of conflicts. This confirms the essentialities in existence of the two types of courts mentioned. To expound on our introductory classification on the already mentioned dimensions of business law, bussines law attempts to address diverse issues in a business. It enables swift and efficient en forcement of contracts ensures adequate legal protection to both private and personal property. It ensures clear frame work and mechanisms for transferring and registering property. Furthermore, it also sees to it that intellectual property get due protection and enforcement. Business law ensures stability and the existence of a frame work able to accommodate the management, oparations and establishment of companies. It foresees sound and secured regimes that can enable transactions making a business be able to obtain credit. Lastly, bussines law ensures a relatively easy and transparent market. To commence with, contract laws emphasis the fact that agreements made between or among parties in a transaction must be honored. This has mechanisms in place to ensure that parties uphold their terms of agreement throughout the transaction session. These laws protect mostly those transactions that are long term in nature. For example, an infrastructure contract between a company and the gov ernment. Such contract may span for several years which qualifies the need for mechanisms to be put in place to guide both parties during work progress until it is completed. Violation of any of these terms by any of the trading partners means that a contract law has been broken and this necessitates a further step from the affected partner. Contract laws also give a contracting partner the constitutional right to know if the other partner is credit worthy. This factor plays a role in preventing future payment disputes in case of defaults from any of the parties. This law ensures that there are mechanism and measures which are in place to enable debt recovery in circumstances of payment defaults. This may apply to scenarios where payments are made through cheques that bounce. Contract law empowers the courts to collect debts if such scenarios of payment default arise. Secondly there is high regard to property ownership which is protected in business law under the personal property r ights. These states that the owner of any property has got the due constitutional authority to sell, exchange, transfer or even consume his property. Property may be listed as buildings, land, physical possessions and also intellectual property which majorly encompass innovations of mind such as music or any other invention. For instance, a

Afro-Caribbean Poetry Essay Example for Free

Afro-Caribbean Poetry Essay In this essay I will be studying the various items of poetry from manyAfro-Caribbean poets. One of the poets is Langston Hughes who was  born in Joplin, Missouri on the first of February 1902. He started  writing poetry after moving to Lincoln, Illinois. The poems I will be  studying are Mulatto and I, Too.  The next poet I will be looking at is Grace Nichols. Nichols was born  in Guyana in 1950, she came to England in 1977 this is when she  developed her fiction and verse writing. The poem I will be studying is  Praise song for my mother. The next poet I will look at will be Dr Benjamin Obadiah lqual  Zephaniah, he was born in Birmingham, but he spent most of his  time in Jamaica. After he spent some time in prison he decided to use  his energy for good and educate himself. The poem I will study I love  me mudder.  The last poet work I will be looking at will be John Agard. Agard was  born in Guyana in 1949, the country was still a British colony until  1966. In 1977 Agard moved to England. This is where he became the  light of the new West Indian British dawn of various bardic  compositions. Agard is a poet whom blends calypso styled language  with unique sounding spoken word. The work I will be studying is  Half-caste  I have paired the poems up. The pairs either share the same topic,  tone or language. One of the pairs is Half-caste by John Agard and  Mulatto by Langston Hughes, because they have the same type of  topic and also tone.  Half caste is about weather: the term half-caste can be applied to  any thing else apart from people. John Agard has written a very good  poem witch makes you think about the words we use every day with  out knowing the proper meanings and whether it makes any sense  when you break the word down. I think that many words we use now  are out of date and should be changed for politically correct terms  and alternatives. Agard also uses some stunning references to get you  thinking. The other half of this pair Mulatto tells us about the harsh  treatment black women faced at the hands of their white bosses in  the slave era and how the women were only used as play things, this  is shown in the part Whats a body but a toy?. The word mulatto  means the same as half caste but not as many people use it  nowadays. The boy in the story has a trouble fitting in with black  people and white people and does not have that sense of belonging if  he had been born to parents of the same race. The next pair is Praise song for my mother by Grace Nichols and I  love me mudder by Benjamin Zephaniah. Ive paired these poems  because they share the same topics which is their mothers.  Praise song for my mother is about how Grace Nichols loved her  mother and how she inspired to do the best she could. Its also how  she looked up to her, and how her mother was all the things she likes  such as the sunrise and the fried plantain smell. The poem is set in a  past tense which seems to tell us the readers that her mother has  died. The second half of my pair is I love me mudder. This poem is about  how Benjamin Zephaniahs mother came from Jamaica on a boat  called Windrush. Many people came from Jamaica because they  thought they would have a better life than the one they all ready had.  In black family family (need to delete this) life the figure of the  mother is very strong and is the main rule maker in the house, and  this poem shows how she works so hard just to make sure her familydont go without. The last pair of poems is taint by Grace Nichols and I, Too by  Langston Hughes these two poems have been joined together because  they both have kind of the same topic which shows the pain black  people have overcome but still yet we are strong.  taint is about the treachery that this person has had cast upon  them while they where a slave, the fact that they where stolen by men  the colour of their own skin. This reminds me of the black on black  gang warfare and killings. This person who trusted the people of their  same skin colour was betrayed. This work also shows how these  people where traded like they where animals. The poem has a  message to everyone: to stop fighting and live peacefully together.  The second half of the pair is I, Too which shows how black people  had to eat in a kitchen when company came but they ate well and  became strong. So when company comes no one will dare tell me to  eat in the kitchen and now you are ashamed about what you did to  me when I was mentally weak. This poem has a promise of hope for  Ã‚  change. Hughes suggests that Tomorrow things will be different and  people will see that beauty and equality of all peoples.

The role of Kindergarten in LLL Essay Example for Free

The role of Kindergarten in LLL Essay ?1. http://www. hfrp. org/publications-resources/browse-our-publications/getting-parents-ready-for-kindergarten-the-role-of-early-childhood-education 2. http://www. earlychildhoodnews. com/earlychildhood/article_view. aspx? ArticleID=477 Successful Transition to Kindergarten: The Role of Teachers Parents By Pam Deyell-Gingold While new kindergartners are worrying about whether or not anyone will be their friend and if they’ll be able to find the bathroom, their preschool teachers are wondering if they’ve succeeded at preparing their small students for this big transition. In recent years the role of kindergarten has changed from an extension of preschool to a much more academic environment because of new standards in the public schools that â€Å"push back† academic skills to earlier grades. How can we ensure that our students make a smooth transition? Are our students mature enough? What can we do to make them â€Å"more† ready? This article will explore the skills that constitute kindergarten â€Å"readiness,† how preschool teachers can collaborate with parents and kindergarten teachers to make the process more rewarding for all, and activities to help prepare children for what will be expected of them in kindergarten. The Transition Process Children go through many transitions throughout their lives, but one of the most important transitions is the one from a preschool program to kindergarten. â€Å"During this period behavior is shaped and attitudes are formed that will influence children throughout their education† (PTA and Head Start, 1999). Children’s transitions are most strongly influenced by their home environment, the preschool program they attend, and the continuity between preschool and kindergarten (Riedinger, 1997). In 1995, Head Start and the Parent Teacher Association (PTA) began a plan to create a partnership between the two organizations in order to create effective transition practices and to promote continuity in parent and family involvement in the schools. Three pilot programs were studied to determine â€Å"best practice† in kindergarten transition, and to foster the continued strong involvement of families in their children’s education. They worked with elementary schools to create parent-friendly environments and to develop strategies that lessen the barriers to involvement (Head Start PTA, 1999). Even Start, a federal program for low-income families implemented to improve educational opportunities for children and adults, also helps parents to work with the school system to help their children succeed. Their research found that parents felt that the way in which Even Start focuses on the family strengths rather than weaknesses and allows the families to identify their own needs, empowered them more than anything else to help them to support their children in school (Riedinger, 1997). Kindergarten Readiness A 1998 study by the National Center for Early Development Learning of nearly 3,600 kindergarten teachers nationwide indicated that 48 percent of children have moderate to serious problems transitioning to kindergarten. Teachers are most often concerned about children’s skills in following directions, academics, and working independently. There seems to be a discrepancy between the expectations of teachers and the actual skills of kindergarten children. Therefore, a need for kindergarten teachers to collaborate with both parents and preschool teachers exists (Pianta Cox, 1998). School readiness is more than a matter of academics, though. As reported in a National Education Goals Panel in 1998; â€Å"The prevailing view today, however, is that readiness reflects a range of dimensions, such as a child’s health and physical development, social and emotional development, approaches to learning, language and communication skills, and cognitive and general knowledge† (California Department of Education, 2000). Historically, kindergarten was a â€Å"children’s garden†: a place to interact for the first time with a group of agemates, and to learn basic skills through play. Today, because of increasing numbers of working mothers, single-parent families, and strict welfare regulations, many children begin having group experiences in a child care program or family child care home at a much earlier age. Together with the concern that America’s children are not getting adequate education to compete in a global market, our schools began to make the transition from the children’s garden to â€Å"curriculum escalation† (Shepard Smith, 1988) and â€Å"academic trickle-down† (Cunningham, 1988). While the trend towards focusing on academic skills continues at a fast pace, early childhood professionals argue for a more integrated curriculum that addresses the developmental needs of each child. Social Adjustment Although academics may be becoming increasingly more important, research shows that social skills are what most affect school adjustment (Ladd Price, 1987; Ladd, 1990). Preschool teachers should not feel pressured into teaching academics beyond what is developmentally â€Å"best practice† (Bredekamp Copple, 1997) but should continue to focus on social and emotional development. Children who have been rejected by their peers in kindergarten tend to have poor school performance, more absences, and negative attitudes towards school that last throughout their school years. â€Å"Three particular social skills that are known to influence children’s peer acceptance: play behavior, ability to enter play groups, and communication skills† (Maxwell Eller, 1994). Play Behavior and Communication Skills Specific behaviors that cause rejection by fellow students include things like rough play, arguing, upsetting things in class, trying to get their own way, and not sharing. Children who exhibit these behaviors also tend to be less independent and less cooperative than their peers. Most children prefer playing with others who are polite, caring, and attentive. Preschool teachers and parents need to teach young children social skills, especially how to enter social groups. For example, children who say, â€Å"Looks like that’s a fun game, can I play? † are more likely to be accepted than those who shove others aside and whine, â€Å"I want a turn! † Another important social skill is the ability to participate in complicated fantasy games and take part in making up and extending the story. Children who lack sufficient experience playing with age-mates may feel frustrated at not being able to keep up with the capabilities of their classmates. â€Å"A generous amount of guided social experience with peers prior to kindergarten helps children do well in this new world† (Maxwell Eller, 1994). Some children need assistance to learn how to play make-believe. A teacher can help model this by giving verbal cues like, â€Å"You be the mommy, and I’ll be your little girl. Can I help you make dinner, Mommy? † Some children need reminders to keep them focused on their roles. Others may need help to read the emotions on people’s faces. â€Å"Look at Nick’s face. He is sad because you pulled the hat away from him. † Because young children do not have a large enough vocabulary to express themselves, teachers can help them find words to express their feelings such as, â€Å"You’re feeling frustrated. Let’s go find a puzzle with fewer pieces. † Communication skills, such as being able to take part in a conversation, listen to others, and negotiate are also important. For example, children who speak directly to peers, are attentive to others in the group, and respond to the initiations of others tend to be liked by the other children. Disliked children are more likely to make irrelevant comments, reject the initiations of other children without reasons or explanations, and often make comments without directing them to anyone (Maxwell Eller, 1994). Part of a teacher’s task is to quietly remind children to look at the person they’re talking to, and listen to what another child is saying. Immaturity and Redshirting A common practice when dealing with children who are not socially mature is to keep them out of school for a year, in the hope that â€Å"readiness will emerge. † In academic circles this is referred to as â€Å"redshirting,† a term borrowed from college athletics. However, â€Å"Research shows that redshirts are not gaining an academic advantage, and the extra year does not solve the social development problems that caused initial concern† (Graue, 1994). Parents who are told that their children need to stay home for a year should ask for the reasons. â€Å"Developmentally appropriate practice is less common in kindergarten, and primary teachers face many constraints and pressures that teachers of younger children are not yet experiencing in the same intensity [although preschool appears to be next in line for â€Å"pushdown† curriculum]. † (Jones, Evans, Rencken, 2001). â€Å"If we think inclusively we have to problem-solve in ways to accommodate the incredible diversity presented by the characteristics of kindergartners†¦. Redshirting and retention are outmoded tools that should be replaced by more appropriate practices. One step in the right direction is collaboration between preschool and elementary school educators† (Graue, 1994). A second step is to have parents understand what experiences can help their child have a successful transition. Learning About Classroom Styles In collaborating with kindergarten teachers, preschool teachers and parents need to visit the school and pay close attention to details that may affect their students in kindergarten. â€Å"When teachers and parents agree on a philosophy of education, children usually adjust more easily† (Maxwell Eller, 1994). Children feel more secure in their new environment if they feel that their parents support the teacher and the school. The first step may be either a meeting with the kindergarten teacher or a class field trip to the elementary school. â€Å"Observe kindergarten classrooms to identify teaching styles, classroom management techniques, and routines. Also try to identify skills that are needed to be successful in participating in the kindergarten classroom† (Karr-Jelinek, 1994). In her research, Karr-Jelinek used a checklist of what parents (and teachers) should look for in a kindergarten classroom, to see if their children – both normally developing and with special needs – are ready for the classroom they visit: ? How many steps are given at a time in directions? ? What types of words are children expected to understand? ? How does each individual child compare to the other children? ? How long are children expected to sit still in a group? ? How often do children speak out of turn or move around when they should be sitting? ? How much independence is expected? ? What type of work is being done? (small groups, seatwork, etc. ) ? Where might my special needs students need extra help? ? What kind of special information can I pass along to the teacher about each child? (Karr-Jelineck, 1994) Although expectations vary by teacher and school district, by the time children reach kindergarten they should be able to listen to a story in a group, follow two or three oral directions, take turns and share, follow rules, respect the property of others, and work within time and space constraints. They need to learn the difference between work and play, knowing when and where each is appropriate. â€Å"Most five-year-olds can express themselves fluently with a variety of words and can understand an even larger variety of words used in conversations and stories† (Nurss, 1987). Many kindergartens make use of learning centers, small group instruction, and whole group language activities. However, others use â€Å"structured, whole group paper-and-pencil activities oriented to academic subjects, such as reading and mathematics. The curriculum in these kindergartens often constitutes a downward extension of the primary grade curriculum and may call for the use of workbooks, which are part of a primary level textbook series. Many early childhood professionals have spoken out on the inappropriateness of such a curriculum† (Nurss, 1987). Preparing Parents for the Transition High-quality preschool programs encourage parent involvement in the home and in the classroom. Volunteering to read during story time, to share cultural traditions, or to be a lunch guest are all ways for parents to feel that they are a part of their child’s school life. According to the National PTA, parent and family involvement increases student achievement and success. If preschool teachers can make parents feel welcome helping in the classroom, they will be more likely to remain involved in their child’s future education. Many parents worry about their children entering elementary school because of their own negative school experiences. They may feel intimidated by teachers and uncomfortable showing up at school events – even for orientation and enrolling their children in school (Reidinger, 1997). Parents’ expectations of how well children will do in school influence children’s performance. It appears that parents who expect success may provide more support, encouragement and praise, which may give their children more self-esteem and confidence. The most important thing is that children who believe in their own abilities have been found to be more successful in school (Dweck, 1991). To assist parents, preschool teachers can arrange visits to the school and take parents along on the kindergarten field trip. They can ask for children to be paired with a kindergarten â€Å"buddy† who can take them around, while parents meet with the teacher or go to the office to register their child. A study done by Rathbun and Hauskin (2001) showed that the more low-income students that were enrolled in a school, the less parental involvement there was. Involving low-income families in the schools may help to break the cycle of poverty of future generations. One way to really help the family with transition is to empower the parents to act as advocates for their children. Parent meetings and newsletters can help parents learn how to work with school staff, learn about volunteer opportunities at school, as well as how to prepare their child at home for kindergarten. They may need some advice on how to help their children and themselves cope with anxieties related to transitions from preschool to kindergarten. Preparing Children for Transition In the last few weeks of summer, children start getting excited about going to kindergarten, and are apprehensive at the same time. It is important for parents to treat the child’s entrance into kindergarten as a normal occurrence and not build up the event in children’s minds. An important way to provide continuity for the child is to find preschool classmates or other children who will be in their kindergarten class. According to research, children who have a familiar peer in a new group setting have fewer problems adjusting to new environments (Howes, 1988). Transition Activities for Parents and Children. The more you discuss this transition in a matter-of-fact way, the more comfortable children will become. Encourage parents to prepare their child for kindergarten with the following: ? Visit the school so the children can meet the kindergarten teacher and see what kindergarten is really like. Try to arrange for them to see more than one type of classroom activity, such as seatwork time and free choice time. Show them where the bathroom and cubbies are located. ? Find out what lunchtime will be like. If the children are going to be getting a school lunch, they may have to learn how to open new kinds of containers. ? Read books about kindergarten. ? Answer children’s questions in a straight forward way about what they will do in kindergarten. Tell them they will listen to stories, do counting activities, have group time, and play outside. ? Explore how long the kindergarten day is and what the daily routine will be like. They will want to know what will be the same as preschool and what will be different. ? If the children are going to a school that presents more diversity than they are familiar with, talk honestly with them about racial and ethnic differences and disabilities. ? If children are going to be taking the schoolbus for the first time, you will need to discuss schoolbus safety rules. ? Reassure children that they will be picked up from school every day just as they are in preschool. ? Check to make sure your pre-kindergarten children are capable of basic kindergarten â€Å"readiness† skills. (See sidebar below. ) Conclusion The transition from preschool to kindergarten can be a stressful time for both children and parents. However, if preschool teachers can facilitate collaboration between parents and kindergarten and familiarize children with  the workings of kindergarten, it will be a smoother process. Parents need to try to find a developmentally appropriate class for their child by observing different classrooms and talking to teachers about educational philosophies. Preschool teachers, with their knowledge of different learning styles and the temperaments of their students, can help everyone with this important transition. Pam Deyell-Gingold is a graduate student in Human Development at Pacific Oaks College. She works as master teacher at Head Start, teaches child development classes for Merced Community College, and is a freelance writer and anti-bias curriculum enthusiast. Her home is in the Sierra foothills near Yosemite National Park, California. References Bredekamp, S. Copple, C. (1997) Developmentally appropriate practice for early childhood programs. Revised edition. Washington, DC: NAEYC. California Dept of Ed. , (2000). Prekindergarten learning and development guidelines. Sacramento, CA. Cunningham, A. 1988. Eeny, meeny, miny, moe: Testing policy and practice in early childhood. Berkeley, CA: National Commission on Testing and Public Policy In Graue, E (2001, May) What’s going on in the children’s garden today? Young Children. Dweck, C. S. (1991). Self-theories and goals: their role in motivation, personality and development. In Nebraska symposia on motivation, Vol. 36, ed. by R. Dienstbier, 199-235. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. [In Maxwell, Eller, 1994] Graue, E. (2001, May) What’s going on in the children’s garden today? Young Children, p. 67-73. Howes, C. (1988). Peer interaction of young children. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 53 (2. Serial No. 217). In Maxwell, K. and Eller, C. (1994, September) Children’s Transition to Kindergarten, Young Children. Howlett, M. P. (1970, February 18). Teacher’s edition: My Weekly Reader Surprise, Vol. 12, Issue 20. Jones, E. , Evans, K. , Rencken, K. (2001) The Lively Kindergarten, NAEYC publications. Karr-Jelinek, C. (1994). Transition to kindergarten: Parents and teachers working together. Educational Resources Information Center. Ladd, G. W. , 1990. Having friends, keeping friends, making friends and being liked by peers in the classroom: Predictors of children’s early school adjustment? Child Development (61) 1081-100. Ladd, G. W. , J. M. Price. 1987. Predicting children’s social and school adjustment following the transition from preschool to kindergarten. Child Development, (58) 1168-89. Maxwell, K. Eller, S. (1994, September). Children’s transition to kindergarten. Young Children, p. 56-63. National PTA National Head Start Association. (1999). Continuity for success: Transition planning guide. National PTA, Chicago, IL. National Head Start Association, Alexandria, VA. Nurss, J. 1987, Readiness for Kindergarten, ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education, Urbana, IL; BBB16656. Pianta, R. Cox, M. (1998) Kindergarten Transitions. Teachers 48% of Children Have Transition Problems. NCEDL Spotlights Series, No. 1, National Center for Early Development Learning: Chapel Hill, NC. Rathbun, A. Hauskin, E. (2001). How are transition-to-kindergarten activities associated with parent involvement during kindergarten? Paper presented at the Annual meeting of the American Educational Research Foundation: Seattle, WA. Riedinger, S. (1997), Even Start: Facilitating transitions to kindergarten. Dept. of Education: Washington, DC: Planning and Evaluation Service. Shepard, I. A. M. I. Smith. (1988) Escalating academic demand in kindergarten: counterproductive policies. The Elementary School Journal, (89) 135-45. In Maxwell, K. and Eller, C. (1994, September) Children’s Transition to Kindergarten, Young Children. Kindergarten Readiness Is†¦* A child who listens ? Todirections without interrupting ? To stories and poems for five or ten minutes without restlessness A child who hears ? Words that rhyme ? Words that begin with the same sound or different sounds A child who sees ? Likenesses and differences in pictures and designs ? Letters and words that match A child who understands ? The relationship inherent in such words as up and down, top and bottom, little and big ? The classifications of words that represent people, places, and things A child who speaks and can  ? Stay on the topic in class discussions ? Retell a story or poem in correct sequence ? Tell a story or relate an experience of her own A child who thinks and can ? Give the main idea of a story ? Give unique ideas and important details ? Give reasons for his opinions A child who adjusts ? To changes in routine and to new situations without becoming fearful ? To opposition or defeat without crying or sulking ? To necessity of asking for help when needed A child who plays ? Cooperatively with other children ? And shares, takes turns and assumes his share of group responsibility ? And can run, jump, skip, and bounce a ball with comparative dexterity A child who works ? Without being easily distracted ? And follows directions ? And completes each task ? And takes pride in her work *Adapted from Howlett, M. P. (1970, February 18). Teacher’s edition: My Weekly Reader Surprise, Vol. 12, Issue 20. 3. http://www. edutopia. org/kindergarten-creativity-collaboration-lifelong-learning Kindergarten Is the Model for Lifelong Learning Lets keep teaching creativity throughout school and adulthood. By Mitchel Resnick Illustration of two people sitting on letter blocks  Credit: Wesley Bedrosian Ever since the first kindergarten opened in 1837, it has been a place for telling stories, building castles, painting pictures, making friends, and learning to share. But kindergarten is undergoing a dramatic change. In todays kindergartens, children are spending more and more time filling out worksheets and drilling on flash cards. In short, kindergarten is becoming more like the rest of school. Exactly the opposite needs to happen: We should make the rest of school (indeed, the rest of life) more like kindergarten. Whats so special about kindergarten? As kindergartners playfully create stories, castles, and paintings with one another, they develop and refine their abilities to think creatively and work collaboratively, precisely the abilities most needed to achieve success and satisfaction in the 21st century. Underlying traditional kindergarten activities is a spiraling learning process in which children imagine what they want to do, create a project based on their ideas (using blocks, finger paint, or other materials), play with their creations, share their ideas and creations with others, and reflect on their experiences all of which leads them to imagine new ideas and new projects. This iterative learning process is ideal preparation for todays fast-changing society, in which people must continually come up with innovative solutions to unexpected situations in their lives. If this approach is so well aligned with current societal needs, why do we so rarely support it in classrooms? One reason is that our society and our educational system dont place enough value on creative thinking. Another reason is a lack of appropriate media and technologies: Wooden blocks and finger paint are great for learning kindergarten concepts (such as numbers, shapes, sizes, and colors). But as children get older, they want and need to work on more advanced projects and learn more advanced concepts. To do that, they need different types of tools, media, and materials. This is where I believe digital technologies can play their most important role. If properly designed and used, new technologies can extend the kindergarten approach, allowing students of all ages to continue learning in the kindergarten style and, in the process, to keep growing as creative thinkers. In my research group at the Media Lab at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, weve been developing new technologies specifically to support the kindergarten approach to learning. For example, weve collaborated with the Lego Group since 1985 on a collection of robotics construction kits that enable children to imagine and create interactive inventions in the same spirit as kindergartners build towers with blocks. Recently, weve developed a new programming language called Scratch, which brings the kindergarten learning approach to the computer screen. With Scratch (available as a free download), children can create their own interactive stories, games, and animations and then share their creations on the Web. A vibrant online community has developed around Scratch, as users present more than a thousand new projects on the Scratch Web site each day. Some 250,000 people participate in the community, most of them ages 8-16. One active participant in the community is a 13-year-old girl with the name BalaBethany (not her real screen name). As her first Scratch project, BalaBethany created and shared an animated story with anime characters. Other members of the online community responded positively, posting glowing comments under her project. Encouraged, BalaBethany began to create and share new anime stories on a regular basis, like episodes in a television series. BalaBethany periodically added new characters to her stories. At one point, she got an idea: Why not involve the community in the process? She created and uploaded a new Scratch project that announced a contest: She asked other community members to design a sister for one of the characters. The project received more than 100 comments. One was from a community member who wanted to enter the contest but didnt know how to draw anime characters. So BalaBethany produced another Scratch project: a step-by-step tutorial that demonstrates a 13-stage process for drawing and coloring an anime character. Illustration of Mitchel Resnick Credit: Wesley Bedrosian I see BalaBethany as a case study of lifelong kindergarten. She is using Scratch to imagine, create, play, share, and reflect. In the process, she is refining her programming and artistic skills and shes developing as a creative thinker. Our ultimate goal is a world full of playfully creative people who, like BalaBethany, continue to learn as kindergartners do. Mitchel Resnick is director of the Lifelong Kindergarten group at the Massachusetts Institute of Technologys Media Lab. This article originally published on 5/27/2009 4. http://www. seas. upenn. edu/~eas285/Readings/Resnick_LifelongKindergarten. pdf 5. http://www. ufri. uniri. hr/data/book_2. pdf CJELOZIVOTNO UCENJE – KREIRANJE OSOBNOSTI I OKRUZJA DJECJEG VRTICA LIFELONG LEARNING PERSONAL GROWTH AND THE KINDERGARTEN CONTEXT Bozica Pintaric Djecji vrtic Malesnica Zagreb, Republika Hrvatska. Sazetak Razvoj svakog, pa tako i odgojno-obrazovnog okruzja podrazumijeva stalno ucenje i mijenjanje svih sudionika, sto tako stvara organizaciju koja uci, mijenja se, kreira. Kvalitativne razlike u tome procesu povezane su s motivacijskim odrednicama. Poznato je da je ucenje najucinkovitije i da su stvarne promjene moguce, ako su proistekle iz unutarnje potrebe osobe za samoaktualizacijom i preuzimanjem proaktivne, stvaralacke uloge u oblikovanju svoje stvarnosti. Tako potaknutim ucenjem, na samo da se profesionalno jacamo, vec prosirujemo svoju sposobnost kreiranja svog zivota na profesionalnom i sveukupnom planu. Vrednovanjem i samovrednovanjem, kao sastavnim dijelom ucenja i razvoja osobe i okruzja/ustanove isto tako razvijamo intrapersonalne i interpersonalne sposobnosti, koje su opet sastavni dijelovi kvalitete ucenja i zivljenja. To je posebno prisutno u odgojno obrazovnim ustanovama, posebice djecjim vrticima, gdje se sveukupne relacije i okruzje prvenstveno sagledavaju kao okruzje kvalitetnog zivljenja djece i odraslih. Kljucne rijeci: ucenje, samovrednovanje, motivacija, osobni razvoj, kreiranje okruzja Abstract. The development of every, and thus also an educational surrounding, means permanent learning and change in all the participating parties, which creates an organisation that is in the constant process of learning, changing, creating. Qualitative differences in this process are connected with motivational determiners. It is well known that learning is the most efficient and that real changes are possible if they have resulted from the person’s intrinsic need for self-actualisation and taking of a pro-active and creative role in the shaping of reality. Such learning not only strenghtens us professionally, but also expands our capacity to create our own lives in a professional setting and other settings. Evaluation and self-evaluation/ reflection, as components of learning and personal growth, as well as of context / institution development positively affect intrapersonal and interpersonal abilities, which are integral parts of quality learning and living. This is particularly present in educational institutions, especially kindergartens, where overall personal relations and surroundings are primarily viewed as a habitat for the quality life of children and adults. Key words: learning, self-evaluation/reflection, motivation, personal growth, creation of context B. Pintaric, CJELOZIVOTNO UCENJE – KREIRANJE OSOBNOSTI 220  «Majka priroda je bezgranican proces postanka i bitka. Duh koji bi joj se potpuno otvorio, bez emocionalnih rezervi i samorefleksije, izgubio bi se u sirovom materijalizmu njenog beskrajnog i neumoljivog izobilja te bezuvjetno potonuo.  » Camille Paglia Obrazovne organizacije po svojoj su prirodi mjesta zivota, dinamike, stalne mijene, razvoja, ucenja. Vrtic cesto imenujemo zajednicom koja uci, mjestom  «refleksivnog dijaloga djece i odraslih s procesom njihova zajednickog, kontinuiranog ucenja, pri cemu oni jednako vrijedno doprinose zajednickom ucenju, za njega dijele odgovornost i nad njima imaju zajednicko autorstvo » (Slunjski, 2006, str. 35). To podrazumijeva stalno istrazivanje, propitivanje, reflektiranje i samoreflektiranje, vrednovanje i samovrednovanje, slozene i zahtijevne interakcije na intrapersonalnoj i interpersonalnoj razini svih u ustanovi. Za te procese potreban je stalan, snazan angazman i motiviranost djelatnika,  odrzivost uvelike ovisi od kulture zajednice, ustanove. To bi trebala biti  «mjesta gdje ljudi bez straha stvaraju svoje vizije, gdje su istrazivanje i posvecenost istini norma, gdje se podrazumijeva suprotstavljanje stanju status quo », (Senge 2003, str. 172-173). U takvom se okruzju  «pojacava osjecaj da se osobno usavrsavanje i razvoj doista vrednuje, cijeni » (isto, str. 173). Stalan razvoj omogucuju zajednice koje su ‘brizne obitelji’ koje puno ocekuju od svojih clanova , a pritom pruzaju uzajamnu podrsku.  »(Stoll i Fink, 2000, str.256) Osobno iskustvo je, prema velikom dijelu autora, sredisnja os mijenjanja i razvoja zajednica. Miljak (2007, str. 212) u tom smislu navodi:  »Osobno iskustvo i to ono svakodnevno u praksi uz pomoc zajednice iskusnih prakticara moze dovesti ne samo do mijenjanja odgojne prakse nego i do promjene stavova, uvjerenja i nacina razmisljanja ucitelja, odgajatelja.  »  «Kako se mijenja iskustvo, mogu se mijenjati duboka uvjerenja i pretpostavke, a kad se to dogodi, promijeni se i kultura.  »(Senge, 2002, str. 14) Autenticne, snazne poticatelje, partnere i ucitelje ucenja u kontekstu vrtica imamo u dj.

Analysis of Liver Disease in Europe

Analysis of Liver Disease in Europe To what extent does alcohol contribute to liver disease in Europe? Alcoholic liver disease is the major complication of chronic alcohol abuse, with cirrhosis (with or without portal hypertension), being the most common end-point of the spectrum of complications. This association is seen throughout virtually all populations, demographic groups and clinical sub-sets. (Walsh K et al. 2000) It is notable that the incidence of the disease process is changing on a world-wide consideration, with countries such as India and Japan recently seeing a rapid escalation in numbers of cases of cirrhosis, from their traditionally low baseline of prevalence of the disease. This essay however, will primarily consider the situation in Europe. Considerations of safe limits to alcohol consumption have to be prefaced with the comments that they are controversial, and that there is no common agreement on a minimum safe level. In the UK, the Royal College of Physicians suggest a weekly limit of 21 units (210 g) of alcohol in men and 14 units in women as being the upper limit of â€Å"safe† use. This has to be seen in the context that the Office of Population Censuses and Surveys General Household Survey found that 27% of men and 13% of women in the UK were found to be exceeding these limits in 2004 (OPCS 2004) This can be contrasted with the findings of an Italian study (Bellentani S et al. 1997) which suggested that the â€Å"significant risk threshold† for the subsequent development of alcoholic liver disease in an Italian population was only 30g of ethanol per day and that the risk escalated with progressively higher levels of intake. The authors also noted that, for a given level of intake, women had a significantly higher risk of developing alcoholic liver disease than did age-matched men. On a critical note, one must concede that this was a prospective non-randomised study with a moderate (6,500) entry cohort. This can be compared with a larger Danish study (13,000 entry cohort) which demonstrated a statistically significant increase in the risk of alcoholic liver disease at levels of intake above 14 27 units per week in males and 7 13 units in females. (Becker U et al. 1996) One cannot conclude, from this data, that different European populations have different susceptibility to alcoholic liver disease. One of the major practical difficulties in mounting a major prospective study of this nature is the control of the huge number of variables that may influence the outcome, not least of which is the fact that no individual person drinks a uniform quantity of alcohol per day over many years. There are also considerations of the possibility of variation of effect of different proprietary brands of alcohol-containing drinks as well as the (largely under researched) area of the long term effect of binge drinking. Virtually all studies however, demonstrate a steep dose dependent increase in alcoholic liver disease above a threshold level of alcohol intake with women having a greater incidence of the disease than men at a given age range and level of intake. The reasons for this sex difference is not completely clear with Kwo et al. demonstrating that if one adjusts for body mass and liver size, then both men and women have equivalent biological rates of alcohol degradation. (Kwo P Y et al. 1998) A number of authorities (viz. Teli M R et al. 2005) suggest that these gender differences in susceptibility to alcoholic liver disease may be due to primarily to pharmacokinetic reasons including differences in the rates of ethanol absorption or alternatively, differences in the degree of response of the liver to alcohol induced injury such as that caused by oxidative by-products of ethanol metabolism in the liver. If one accepts the difficulties inherent in trying to define the lower margins of â€Å"safe† levels of alcohol drinking, then it is also appropriate to consider the problem from the other end of the spectrum. There are many studies in the literature which have considered the incidence and natural history of alcoholic liver disease in a population of heavy drinkers who, by definition, will show a much higher prevalence of the disease process. A comparatively old study by La Vecchia et al. showed a Europe-wide reducing trend in alcoholic liver disease in the recent past (La Vecchia, C et al. 1994) and this should be compared with data which shows that the deaths from alcoholic liver disease are actually increasing in the UK (CMO 2001). More specific recent data shows that this increase is disproportionately represented by the young adult and middle aged population in the UK showing an 8-fold rise since the 1970s (Leon, D. A et al. 2006) There is a general perception that end-stage alcoholic liver disease (in the form of cirrhosis) is only seen in those patients who demonstrate alcohol dependence syndrome (viz. Smith et al. 2004 and Luca A et al. 2007). There is a growing body of evidence which suggests that this may not actually be the case. If one considers one of the landmark papers on alcohol dependence and related disease processes, one could cite the classification of Jellinek who categorised five â€Å"sub-species† of alcoholism in his authoritative work in the area. (Jellinek, E. M. 1960 A). The current significance of his initial classification is that he identified two specific types of â€Å"alcoholics†, the ‘ß alcoholics’ who are not alcohol dependant, but who have a disproportionately high incidence of alcohol-related diseases, such as cirrhosis and contrasted this to the gamma alcoholics who were typically highly physically dependent, demonstrated frequent behavioural problems and had a high incidence of sociological complications. Jellinek made deductions about why these groups had different drinking patterns suggesting that the tendency towards heavy drinking in the ß alcoholic group was related to the customs and peer pressures within their social group, whereas gamma alcoholism was characterised, in part, by drinking to relieve a psychological craving and a physical addiction. (Jellinek, E. M. 1960 B). In the context of this examination, one can intuitively suggest that the customs, peer pressures and social groupings may be one of the more salient causes of different patterns of alcohol use across the various national cultures of Europe. There is a further difficulty in that, a brief overview of the literature on the subject of alcoholic liver disease shows that, in the context of Jellinek’s theoretical framework, which describes the population of drinkers who present to healthcare professionals with liver disease as a distinctly separate (although overlapping) population from those who present with alcohol dependence, there is a comparative paucity of studies which look at the drinking patterns, social factors and attitudes in patients with alcoholic liver disease when one compares it with the wealth of literature on alcohol dependence. This may seem to be an academic inference, but one can cite the authority of the often quoted Wodak study which identified significant differences between the population of typical patients with alcoholic liver disease and a population of patients who were recruited from an alcohol treatment centre for dependence, presenting evidence that only 18% of patients who had clinical alcoholic liver disease were severely dependent on alcohol and this contrasted with 56% of the attendees at the alcohol treatment centres. The authors also found that 63% of the patients who were found to have alcoholic liver disease had only a mild or moderate dependence on alcohol. (Wodak, A. D. et al. 1983). If one looks beyond the confines of Europe, one can cite the authority of an Indian study (Sarin, S. K et al. 1998) which found broadly similar results. More recent studies using liver transplant patients (viz. Burra, P. et al. 2000) have also produced similar results, although there is an obvious source of potential selection bias in such studies in the desire of certain patients to be accepted onto a transplant programme and this bias will (intuitively) vary between the different patterns of medical care provided across Europe. The problem confronting many researchers is the difficulty in clinically defining alcoholic liver disease. Many patients may be unaware that they are developing significant problems until the time of presentation. The first presentation may be with acute upper gastrointestinal tract haemorrhage or with alcoholic hepatitis. Both conditions frequently present in the absence of warning signs of a developing alcohol dependence. (Vorobioff J et al. 1996). The Harry et al. study reporting that the first presentation of alcoholic liver disease may actually be fatal with uncontrollable bleeding oesophageal varices carrying an immediate 25% mortality rate, (Harry, R. et al. 2002), a finding also found in the Brett study. (Brett, B. T. et al. 2001). Mathurin suggests that in patients who present with severe alcoholic hepatitis, over 50% may die. (Mathurin, P et al. 1996) If one considers data from other European centres, the Italian Loguercio study considered the pattern of drinking in indigenous Italians who had Hepatitis C. (Loguercio C et al. 2000). This is particularly significant in the Italian population as their prevalence of Hepatitis C is the highest in Europe. (De Bac, C. et al. 2004). It is well known that Hepatitis C infection is associated with a higher incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma, but it is not know the extent to which subsequent alcohol intake influences the natural progression of the disease process. The Loguercio study sought to explore this feature and makes the observation that only 4 5% of all manuscripts submitted to â€Å"Hepatology† deal with alcohol-related liver disease, which exemplifies the point made earlier. In direct consideration of the thrust of this examination, the extent to which alcohol contributes to liver disease is modified by the presence of complicating factors such as Hepatitis B and C. Loguercio et al. suggest that there is a direct interaction between alcohol and the viruses, other authorities (viz. Ostapowicz, G et al. 1998) suggest that an additional mechanism of disease modification is that the presence of alcohol affects the response to interferon therapy (IFN). The latter belief has a poor evidence base as Mabee points to the fact that, without exception, none of the controlled trials published thus far on the efficacy of IFN treatment of Hepatitis C-related liver disease have determined the alcohol intake levels prior to therapy. ((Mabee, C. L. et al. 2008) Lieberman has shown that chronic alcohol intake levels correlate well with gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GT) levels. (Lieberman, M. W. et al. 1995) and these levels have been shown by Camps to be extremely predictive of treatment (Camps, J. et al. 1993). In this way it is possible to make the direct connection that alcohol intake clearly directly influences the rate of progression of hepatic pathology, a claim that has been further strengthened by the large retrospective analysis by Pol et al. who examined and correlated the rate of progression of the disease process (in Hepatitis C and HIV/AIDS hepatitis, with the overall intake of alcohol. (Pol, S. et al. 1998). The authors demonstrated that alcohol intake of the patient directly influences their gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GT) plasma levels and the rate of progression of the disease process. There is further evidence of the degree to which alcohol influences liver disease, at a histological level, in the form of the Scheuer paper. (Scheuer, P. J. et al. 2001). In congruence with the thrust of this segment of the paper, we can cite the authority of Scheuer who correlated the degree of fibrosis and steatosis with the average levels of alcohol intake and Pessione who noted that the degree of fibrosis in patients with Hepatitis C chronic hepatitis was related to the history of alcohol intake. (Pessione, F. et al. 1998) To return to the Loguercio study, the authors comment that the Italian cohort was typical for the country, (but atypical for Europe) as there is known to be a high alcohol intake per head of the population in Italy, even after making allowances for the fact that alcohol intake has fallen in the last decade (SPE 2004). In an attempt to evaluate the effects of alcohol on the population with alcoholic liver disease the study considered three important markers namely : (1) To estimate how many subjects in our country misused alcohol before and after being diagnosed as having HCV-related chronic liver disease (2) To determine if their drinking habits affected the principal aspects of this disease: routine laboratory data (particularly GT plasma levels), histological pattern (particularly liver steatosis and fibrosis), HCV RNA levels, and response to IFN therapy; (3) To compare results from this and a previous study (Aricà ² et al., 1994) to determine if CLD subjects have modified their drinking habits since a decrease was observed in the general population. (Loguercio C et al. 2000). The study is both long and complex, with rigorous statistical analysis. In essence, the authors were able to demonstrate that the majority of patients with Hepatitis C liver disease still regularly drank significant amounts of alcohol. Patients with hepatitis were more likely to drink alcohol than those with cirrhosis. They were also able to confirm that there were significantly higher levels of gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GT) and greater levels of fibrosis associated with higher levels of alcohol in male subjects. Interestingly, women had higher levels of fibrosis than men even if they were total abstainers or less than 40 g/daily of alcohol, but their gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GT) levels did reflect the overall alcohol intake. This is very supportive of the hypothesis that women appear to have lower levels of defence against the oxidative insult produced by alcohol intake and may therefore develop a more marked fibrotic infiltration. We know, from other evidence that clinic ally, women appear to have more severe and rapidly progressive hepatitic disease processes than men. (Watson, R. R. ed. 2001) To consider a more general overview of the Europe-wide situation, one can consider the Rehm review paper which considers the implications of alcohol usage and mortality rates across the European continent. (Rehm J et al. 2007). The review itself is in commendable depth and provides an excellent evidence base for the area of investigation. The main points presented can be summarised. There is still a general all-cause mortality gradient from west to east across Europe which is more pronounced in males. (Zatonski W et al. 2000). In statistical terms, the western (old EU) countries (Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden and UK) had a male life expectancy of 75.7 yrs and a female life expectancy of 81.5 yrs. In the central European countries (Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia) these expectancy figures have fallen to 70.9 and 78.7 respectively. In the new Baltic states (Estonia, L atvia, and Lithuania) it is 65.3 and 76.8 yrs respectively and in the Russian Federation it was 58.3 for men and 71.8 for women. It can be seen from these figures that the life expectancy for men varies by 17.4 years and 9.7 yrs for women. It should be noted that a later, but less exhaustive, study by Vagero demonstrated that by 2005, while life expectancies were slightly higher, the overall gradient and pattern of mortality remained unchanged. (Vagero D 2007). A number of authorities (viz. Men T et al. 2003 and McKee M et al. 2001) have highlighted the levels of alcohol consumption, in addition to smoking and poor nutrition, as being the main determinants of this gradient. Rhem has also identified alcohol as being the prime determinant of premature mortality in the Russian federation. (Rehm J et al. 2003 A) Rhem presents a systematic analysis of alcohol-attributable mortality and disease burden by country, and considers two major aspects in each case namely, both the level of consumption and the patterns of drinking, the latter mainly referring to irregular heavy drinking occasions. (Rehm J et al. 2007). These two aspects are not straightforward, as an illustrative example of France and Sweden demonstrates. France has a traditional wine drinking culture with overall high levels of alcohol consumption but a relatively low proportion of people drinking to intoxication, Sweden, by contrast, has an increasing, but still relatively low level of overall alcohol consumption but a social tradition of irregular heavy drinking. The study highlights Hungary as being notable for having the highest mortality rates in the EU for several alcohol-related pathologies such as liver cirrhosis, together with malignant neoplasms of lip, oral cavity and pharynx. It is reported that for the age range 20 64 yrs, alcohol plays a part in premature deaths of 25% of the population of Hungary. Cirrhosis is particularly high in Hungary and it is postulated that the high consumption of home made spirits may be a relevant factor. (Szucs S et al. 2005). It is also recognised that the culturally acceptable pattern of drinking in Hungary to a high level of alcohol intake with many heavy drinking occasions. The study gives a graphic breakdown of alcohol-related indices across the continent thus: New EU member states Old EU member states Czech Republic Hungary Lithuania Poland France Sweden UK Russia Adult per capita in l pure alcohol 17.0 14.9 17.2 11.7 14.5 9.9 13.4 15.5 Recorded in l pure alcohol 16.0 11.9 12.3 8.7 13.5 6.9 11.4 10.6 Unrecorded in l pure alcohol 1.0 3.0 4.9 3.0 1.0 3.0 2.0 4.9 Patterns of drinkinga 2 3 3 3 1 3 3 4 Preferred beverage beer wine/beer/spirits beer/spirits spirits/beer wine beer beer spirits Men % abstention/very light drinking 9.0 12.0 10.0 16.4 7.3 10.0 9.2 13.8 % >40 g/dayb 59.4 47.0 41.0 38.5 50.8 18.3 38.6 53.1 Women % abstention/very light drinking 19.1 27.0 28.0 34.3 11.1 16.0 14.3 27.5 % >40 g/day 7.0 16.0 8.0 9.0 7.0 3.8 10.3 8.4 aEstimated average pattern of drinking (1–4 with 4 being the most detrimental pattern; see text for more explanation and13 for the full algorithm used). b>40 g/day on average correspond to more than 3–4 drinks on average per day (1 drink is one can of beers of 0.33 l or one small glass of wine or one shot of spirits). (After Rehm J et al. 2007). There is considerable discussion surrounding the issue of alcohol-attributable mortality and death rates in the various European regions with Russia yielding the highest figures (29.0/10,000 person-years). An unexplained anomaly was found in that France and the UK show consistently higher rates of alcohol-attributable mortality in women than the general trend in the other countries when compared to the equivalent male rates. The overall alcohol-attributable mortality is greater in the male population with the ratio difference being much greater in the new EU member states, where the culture dictates that a smaller proportion of the alcohol produced is consumed by women Alcohol has been defined as only one of the causes of premature mortality (see above). Rehm suggests that alcohol is the major factor as, if the alcohol-related mortality is removed and the mortality figures adjusted, then the premature mortality rates between the highest and lowest rated countries become much more similar. Premature alcohol-attributable deaths in eight European countries by sex and age groups as proportions (in %) of all deaths, for the year 2002 New EU member states Old EU member states Age group Czech Republic Hungary Lithuania Poland France Sweden UK Russiab Men 20–44 28.5 39.4 38.4 26.0 22.9 19.2 22.2 30.7 45–64 14.0 22.2 16.4 10.2 16.6 7.1 7.6 11.9 20–64 16.3 25.2 22.8 13.6 18.0 9.3 10.7 17.9 Women 20–44 14.2 19.5 21.4 10.7 10.9 6.9 12.5 19.9 45–64 4.5 12.7 10.1 2.1 9.6 2.2 4.6 4.9 20–64 5.8 13.7 12.4 3.6 9.9 2.9 6.0 8.5 The estimates for Russia are underestimates, as several disease categories could not be included because of the different classification system of diseases (After Rehm J et al. 2007). It has to be acknowledged that with all of the papers cited in this examination, there are a number of potential shortcomings as data from different countries is inevitably subject to different categorisations and different modes of collection. Equally, differential rates of confounding factors such as Hepatitis C, HIV/AIDS, smoking and nutritional differences, all of which impact on the clinical presentation of the alcoholic liver disease process are difficult to completely isolate and account for. An additional complicating factor is that it has long been recognised that small amounts of alcohol have a cardio protective effect (Rehm J et al. 2003 B), irregular heavy drinking occasions (binge drinking) adding up to the same average volume of drinking over a period of time are associated with increased risk of vascular events. This increased risk is hard to separate from the increased risk of mortality from alcoholic liver disease. This is particularly the case with the Russian experience where drinking typically follows irregular heavy drinking patterns and the cardioprotective effect is probably negligible on a population-wide assessment. (Nicholson A et al. 2005) In overview, one can conclude that alcohol plays a substantial, and geographically variable role in premature adult mortality across Europe with 15% of all deaths in the 20 64 yr age range being attributable to this risk with men comprising a higher proportion than women in this total. (Rehm J et al. 2006). References Aricà ², S., Galatola, G., Tabone, M. and Corrao, G. (1994) Amount and duration of alcohol intake in patients with chronic liver disease. An Italian Multicentric Study. Italian Journal of Gastroenterology 26, 59 – 65. Becker U, Deis A, Sorensen T I A, et al. (1996) Prediction of risk of liver disease by alcohol intake, sex and age : a prospective population study. Hepatology 1996; 23 : 1025 1029 Bellentani S, Saccoccio G, Costa G, et al. (1997) Drinking habits as cofactors of risk for alcohol induced liver damage. Gut 1997; 41 : 845 850 Brett, B. T., Hayes, P. C. and Jalan, R. (2001) Primary prophylaxis of variceal bleeding in cirrhosis. European Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology 13, 349 – 358 Burra, P., Mioni, D., Cillo, U. et al. (2000) Long-term medical and psycho-social evaluation of patients undergoing orthotopic liver transplantation for alcoholic liver disease. Transplant International 13, S 174 – S 178 Camps, J., Crisostomo, S., Garcia-Granero, M., Riezu-Boj, J. I., Civeira, M. P. and Prieto, J. (1993) Prediction of the response of chronic hepatitis C to interferon alfa: a statistical analysis of pretreatment variables. Gut 34, 1714 – 1717 CMO (2001) Chief Medical Officer. On the State of the Public Health: Chief Medical Officers Annual Report 2001. Department of Health, HMSO : London; De Bac, C., Stroffolini, T., Gaeta, G. B., Taliani, G. and Giusti, G. (2004) Pathogenetic factors in cirrhosis with and without hepatocellular carcinoma: a multicenter Italian study. Hepatology 20, 1225 – 1230 Harry, R. and Wendon, J. (2002) Management of variceal bleeding. Current Opinions in Critical Care 8, 164 – 170. Loguercio C, Di Pierro M, Di Marino M P, Federico A, Disalvo D,, Cradta E, Tuccillo C, Baldi F, Del Vecchio Blanco C (2000) Drinking habits of subjects with Hepatitis C virus related chronic liver disease : Prevalence and effect on clinical, virological and pathological aspects. Alcohol and Alcoholism Vol. 35, No. 3, pp. 296 301, 2000 Jellinek, E. M. (1960a) Alcoholism, a genus and some of its species. Canadian Medical Association Journal 83, 1341–1345 Jellinek, E. M. (1960b) The Disease Concept of Alcoholism, pp. 36 – 41. Hillhouse Press, New Haven, CT. Kwo P Y, Ramchandani V A, OConnor S, et al. (1998) Gender differences in alcohol metabolism: relationship to liver volume and effect of adjusting for body mass. Gastroenterology 1998; 115 : 1552 1557 La Vecchia, C., Levi, F., Lucchini, F. et al. (1994) Worldwide patterns and trends in mortality from liver cirrhosis, 1955 to 1990. Annals of Epidemiology 4, 480 – 486. Leon, D. A. and McCambridge, J. (2006) Liver cirrhosis mortality rates in Britain from 1950 to 2002: an analysis of routine data. Lancet 367, 52 – 56 Lieberman, M. W., Barrios, R. and Carter, B. Z. (1995)Gamma -Glutamyl transpeptidase. What does the organization and expression of a multipromoter gene tell us about its functions? American Journal of Pathology 147, 1175 – 1185. Luca A, Carles Garcia-Pagan J, Bosch J, et al. (2007) Effects of ethanol consumption on hepatic hemodynamics in patients with alcoholic cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 2007; 112 : 1284 1289 Nicholson A, Bobak M, Murphy M, Rose R, Marmot M. Alcohol consumption and increased mortality in Russian men and women: a cohort study based on the mortality of relatives. Bulletin of the WHO (2005) 83 : 803 Mabee, C. L., Crippin, J. S. and Lee, W. M. (2008) Review article : interferon and hepatitis C-factors predicting therapeutic outcome. Alimentary Pharmacology and Therapeutics 12, 509 – 518. Mathurin, P., Duchatelle, V., Ramond, M. J. et al. (1996) Survival and prognostic factors in patients with severe alcoholic hepatitis treated with prednisolone. Gastroenterology 110, 1847 – 1853 McKee M, Shkolnikov V. (2001) Understanding the toll of premature death among men in eastern europe. Br Med J (2001) 323 : 1051 – 55 Men T, Brennan P, Boffetta P, Zaridze D. (2003) Russian mortality trends for 1991 – 2001 : analysis by cause and region. Br Med J (2003) 327 : 964. OPCS (2004) Office of Population Censuses and Surveys General Household Survey : HMSO London 2004 Ostapowicz, G., Watson, J. R., Locarnini, S. A. and Desmond, P. V. (1998) Role of alcohol in the progression of liver disease caused by hepatitis C virus infection. Hepatology 27, 1730 – 1735 Pessione, F., Degos, F. and Marcellin, P. (1998) Effect of alcohol consumption on serum hepatitis C virus RNA and histological lesions in chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology 27, 1717 – 1722 Pol, S., Lamorthe, B. and Trinh Thi, N. (1998) Retrospective analysis of the impact of HIV infection and alcohol use on chronic hepatitis C in a large cohort of drug users. Journal of Hepatology 28, 945 – 950 Rehm J, Room R, Monteiro M, et al

The Meaning of Love Essay -- Papers

The Meaning of Love Love has many different meanings to different people. For a child, love is what he or she feels for his mommy and daddy. To teenage boy, love is what he should feel for his girlfriend of the moment, only because she says she loves him. But as we get older and "wiser," love becomes more and more confusing. Along with poets and philosophers, people have been trying to answer that age-old question for centuries: What is love? One definition of love in The Merriam-Webster dictionary is "attraction based on sexual desire" (439). Some people believe that love and sex are one in the same. If two people are in love, they should be having sex. And, on the flipside, if two people are having sex, they must be in love. However, this assumption is obviously not always true. Whether it is right or not to have sex without love is irrelevant; the fact is it happens. Just because a person is sexually attracted to another person and has the desire to have sex with that person does not necessarily suggest that this person is in love. He or she could very well be...

The Hydrogen Bomb :: World War II History

The Hydrogen Bomb Thesis Statement The hydrogen bomb is a nuclear weapon in which light atomic nuclei of hydrogen are joined together in an uncontrolled nuclear fusion reaction to release tremendous amounts of energy. The hydrogen bomb is about a thousand times as powerful as the atomic bomb, which produces a nuclear fission explosion about a million times more powerful than comparably sized bombs using conventional high explosives such as TNT. The Hydrogen Bomb The Atomic Bomb Was A Essential First Step toward the Development of the Hydrogen Bomb, Before the atomic bomb was developed by the united states during World War II, there was no way to produce the extreme amounts of heat needed to initiate the fusion reaction of the hydrogen bomb. Even after World War II, the hydrogen bomb faced many political and technical obstacles. The U.S. government gave priority to perfecting and stockpiling atomic bombs, and scientist discovered that initiating a fusion reaction was more than simply placing a container of hydrogen near a fission trigger. Tension to develop the hydrogen bomb increased in the United States after the Soviet Union set off its first atomic bomb in August 1949. The Military, the joint congressional committee on Atomic Energy, and several noted physicists, including Edward Teller And Ernest Lawrence, called for creation of a so-called super bomb, but the General Advisory of the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), chaired by J. Robert Oppenheimer, in agreement recommended that the bomb should not be developed, because of the technical difficulties involved, the need to enlarge the Atomic Bomb reserve, and because of moral considerations. A Majority of the AEC supported this decision and passed their recommendation on to President Harry S. Truman. A National Security Council report recommend otherwise, however and at the end of January 1950, Truman ordered that the United States should investigate the possibility of producing hydrogen bombs. Edward Teller was placed in charge of the investigation. The decision to move ahead with the Hydrogen bomb development was made in response to U.S. perceptions that the USSR was close to producing its own Hydrogen Bomb. Thermonuclear devices were tested was to begin in 1952, and by 1954, both the United States And The USSR have achieved Hydrogen Bomb capability. Since That Year each side has developed nuclear arsenals that are almost entirely composed of fusion weapons, rather than fission weapons. They have reached a strategic condition that promises total destruction.